What are Ethical Theories?

The Biggest Ethical Theories and their Example

1. Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism, associated with philosophers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, asserts that an action is morally right if it maximizes overall happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people. It’s a consequentialist theory, which means it focuses on the outcomes of actions. Utilitarianism aims to promote the greatest good for the greatest number. This theory is pragmatic and can be quite helpful in making decisions for the greater good. However, it can sometimes lead to morally questionable actions if it sacrifices the well-being of a minority for the majority’s benefit.

Scenario: Imagine you are the head of a hospital, and you have a limited supply of a life-saving drug. Several patients are in critical condition, and you must decide who receives the drug.

For example:

Patient A is a young parent with three dependent children.

Patient B is an elderly individual with no immediate family.

Patient C is a middle-aged office worker working in the field of taxation

In this scenario, a utilitarian analysis might lead you to give the drug to Patient A because it could potentially save not only their life but also ensure the well-being of their three dependent children.

2. Deontology

Deontology, often associated with Immanuel Kant, takes an entirely different approach. It argues that there are moral rules and principles that are inherently right or wrong, irrespective of the consequences. For example, telling the truth is a moral duty according to Kantian ethics. Appreciating the emphasis on duty and universal principles in deontology can provide clear moral guidance. However, it can sometimes lead to rigid moral judgments that do not account for the complexities of real-life situations.

Scenario: Imagine you’ve made a promise to a close friend that you would help them move to a new house on a particular day. However, on the day of the move, you receive a call from your boss, who urgently needs you to work on a project that could greatly benefit your career. Your friend is counting on you, and helping them move is the right thing to do, as you promised.

In a deontological ethical framework, you should fulfill your promise to your friend. It’s considered a moral duty to keep your word, and this duty takes precedence over the potential benefits to your career or any negative consequences, such as disappointing your boss. Deontology emphasizes the importance of acting in accordance with moral principles and rules, in this case, the principle of keeping promises.

Even if helping your friend move might have negative consequences for your job or personal life, deontology argues that the inherent moral duty to keep your promise remains unchanged. Your decision should be guided by your duty to uphold the promise, not by a calculation of the potential outcomes.

3. Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics, championed by Aristotle, focuses on the development of moral character and virtues like honesty, courage, and compassion. It’s concerned with what kind of person one should be rather than what one should do. This theory is valuable because it encourages personal growth and highlights the importance of character development. It’s less concerned with rule-following and more with cultivating good moral traits.

Scenario: Imagine a situation where a friend confides in you about a personal problem, but sharing this information could harm their reputation or cause them distress. You have a choice to make: whether to keep their secret or reveal it to others.

A virtue ethicist would think about which virtues are most relevant in this context. They might decide that honesty and trustworthiness are crucial virtues in this situation. However, they’d also consider other virtues like compassion and loyalty, which might suggest that keeping the secret is more aligned with being a good friend.

In the end, the decision made by a virtue ethicist would be based on a thoughtful reflection of their own character and the virtues they wish to uphold. They would prioritize being a trustworthy and loyal friend while also considering the importance of honesty.

4. Rights-Based Ethics

Rights-based ethics, often associated with figures like John Locke, emphasizes the inherent rights of individuals. It asserts that it’s morally wrong to violate these rights. This theory forms the basis for many legal and human rights frameworks, which are essential for protecting individual freedoms and ensuring social justice.

Example: Freedom of Speech

In many democratic societies, freedom of speech is considered a fundamental human right. This right is enshrined in documents like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. According to rights-based ethics:

• Individuals have the inherent right to express their thoughts, opinions, and ideas without censorship or government interference.

• This right extends to a wide range of expressions, from political dissent to artistic and cultural creations.

• Any attempt to restrict or suppress an individual’s freedom of speech is considered a violation of their rights.

• The government has a duty to protect and uphold this right, even when the speech is controversial or unpopular.

• Limitations on freedom of speech may be permissible, but they must be narrowly defined and necessary to protect other rights or prevent harm.

In this example, rights-based ethics emphasizes the importance of an individual’s right to express themselves freely without fear of government repression. It serves as a foundation for protecting democratic values and facilitating open discourse.

5. Social Contract Theory

Social contract theory, as proposed by philosophers like Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, suggests that morality is based on a hypothetical agreement individuals make to follow certain rules for the benefit of society. It provides an interesting way to think about how societies form and establish moral norms, emphasizing the importance of cooperation and societal well-being.

Example: Imagine a small community of people living on an isolated island. Initially, they live without any rules or government. However, as the population grows and resources become scarcer, disputes start to arise. Some members propose creating a set of rules and appointing a leader to resolve conflicts and ensure fairness in the distribution of resources.

In this hypothetical scenario, the islanders recognize the need for a social contract. They agree to establish rules, appoint a leader, and follow a system of governance to maintain order and prevent conflicts. This social contract allows them to coexist peacefully and fairly on the island.

6. Relativism

Ethical relativism contends that what is morally right or wrong is dependent on cultural, societal, or individual beliefs. It acknowledges the diversity of ethical perspectives, which is important in promoting tolerance and understanding across cultures. However, it can be challenging when taken to extremes, leading to moral relativism where there are no universal ethical standards.

Example: In some cultures, practices like female genital mutilation (FGM) have been traditionally accepted as a rite of passage and a cultural norm. Those who adhere to ethical relativism would argue that, within that cultural context, FGM might be considered morally acceptable because it aligns with the values and traditions of that particular society. However, from a broader human rights perspective, many argue that FGM is a violation of a person’s bodily autonomy and a harmful practice.

In this example, ethical relativism suggests that the morality of FGM is contingent on the cultural context. It highlights the idea that what is considered morally right or wrong can vary based on the values and beliefs of different societies. However, it’s important to note that ethical relativism can be controversial, as it can sometimes be used to justify practices that are widely condemned from a universal human rights standpoint.

7. Care Ethics

Care ethics, championed by thinkers like Carol Gilligan, places a strong emphasis on caring relationships and the moral significance of empathy and compassion. Unlike utilitarianism, care ethics is not solely concerned with maximizing happiness or pleasure. Instead, it focuses on the quality of relationships and the emotional connections between individuals. Care ethicists argue that moral decisions should be based on the values of care, empathy, and responsibility.

In care ethics, the well-being and needs of individuals within a given relationship or community take precedence over abstract principles or the consequences of actions. It highlights the importance of attending to the specific needs and vulnerabilities of those involved, acknowledging that different situations may require unique responses.

Scenario: Imagine you are a teacher faced with a situation where two of your students are involved in a conflict. One student, Student X, has been a victim of bullying, while the other student, Student Y, is the one responsible for the bullying.

In this scenario, care ethics would lead you to address the situation by fostering a caring and empathetic environment. It would involve listening to both students, understanding their perspectives, and working towards a resolution that promotes healing and growth for both individuals. Care ethics would prioritize the emotional well-being of the students and aim to restore a sense of trust and connection within the classroom community.

8. Egoism

Egoism argues that individuals should act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism takes this further, suggesting that it’s not only rational but also morally right to do so. While self-care is important, believing that an exclusive focus on self-interest can sometimes lead to moral conflicts and neglect of the needs of others.

Scenario: Imagine a scenario where you have an opportunity to get a promotion at work, but the competition is fierce. You know that one of your colleagues, Sarah, is also a strong contender for the position, and she has a family to support. Ethical egoism would suggest that you should do everything in your power to secure the promotion for yourself because it’s in your self-interest to advance your career and increase your income.

In this case, an ethical egoist would argue that it is morally right for you to focus solely on your own well-being and advancement, even if it means potentially undermining Sarah’s chances. The reasoning is that by getting the promotion, you’ll improve your own financial situation and career prospects, which is ultimately what’s best for you.

9. Natural Law Theory

Natural law theory posits that there are inherent moral laws in nature, which can be discovered through reason. It’s often associated with religious ethics and provides a philosophical foundation for some moral beliefs. However, it can be divisive when intertwined with religious dogma, and its application can be controversial.

Scenario: Imagine a physician working in a country where there is a strict law against abortion. The physician is faced with a pregnant woman who has a life-threatening medical condition, and continuing the pregnancy would likely result in her death.

Natural Law Theory, often associated with religious ethics, holds that there are inherent moral laws in nature that can be discovered through reason. It often includes the belief that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of legal or societal norms. In this scenario, the theory might suggest that the physician should not perform an abortion, as it goes against the natural order of procreation and the sanctity of life.

10. Consequentialism

Consequentialism, a broader ethical framework, evaluates the morality of actions based on their outcomes. Unlike deontological ethics, which emphasizes adherence to moral rules and duties, consequentialism holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on the overall consequences it generates. Consequentialist theories focus on the principle that actions should lead to the greatest overall good or minimize harm. Utilitarianism, a well-known subset of consequentialism, is one such theory that strives to maximize happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of individuals.

However, it’s important to note that consequentialism, like utilitarianism, can sometimes lead to morally challenging decisions. For instance, it may require sacrificing the well-being of a minority to achieve the maximum benefit for the majority. Critics argue that this approach can be ethically problematic, especially in cases where the interests and rights of the few are disregarded for the sake of the many.

Scenario: Consider a scenario where you are a judge presiding over a criminal trial. The defendant has been convicted of a heinous crime and faces a life sentence. As per the consequentialist framework, you must decide the appropriate punishment for the defendant.

Example: Option A is to sentence the defendant to life in prison, ensuring that they will never harm society again.

Option B is to rehabilitate the defendant through a comprehensive program, giving them a chance to reintegrate into society as a law-abiding citizen.

In this case, a consequentialist analysis might lead you to choose Option A, arguing that it maximizes the overall good by protecting society from potential harm. However, it could also be criticized for not giving the defendant an opportunity for rehabilitation and personal growth, potentially leading to negative consequences in the long run.

Additional Ethical Theories

Other Important Approaches to Morality

While the major ethical theories like utilitarianism and deontology are well known, there are many other important approaches to ethics that shape how people think about right and wrong. These theories offer different perspectives on morality, from religious and cultural influences to personal intuition and evolving social norms. Exploring these ethical ideas helps make sense of the values that influence human behavior and the choices people make every day.

11. Divine Command Theory

Divine Command Theory is based on the idea that morality is determined by God’s will. According to this theory, an action is morally right if it aligns with divine commandments, often found in religious scriptures. Many religious traditions, such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, uphold this perspective, believing that moral laws are absolute and come from a higher power.

For believers, this theory provides a strong sense of purpose and moral clarity, as they follow established religious teachings. However, a common criticism is that moral rules can vary across different religions, leading to conflicting ethical views. Additionally, the famous “Euthyphro Dilemma,” posed by Socrates, questions whether something is good because God commands it or if God commands it because it is inherently good.

Real-World Example

Consider a doctor who is religious and refuses to perform euthanasia because they believe life is sacred and that ending a life, regardless of circumstances, is morally wrong based on divine teachings.

12. Contractualism

Contractualism, associated with philosopher Thomas Scanlon, suggests that morality is based on what rational individuals would agree upon as fair and just rules for society. It emphasizes fairness and mutual agreement rather than consequences or fixed moral laws.

Unlike Social Contract Theory, which focuses on the political legitimacy of governments, contractualism is more about personal moral obligations. It asks: “What principles could no one reasonably reject?” This makes it particularly relevant in discussions about justice, human rights, and equality.

Real-World Example

In workplace ethics, an employer and employees may agree on fair wages and working conditions that benefit both sides. If one party proposes something that the other could reasonably reject—such as unpaid overtime—it would be considered morally unacceptable.

13. Pragmatic Ethics

Pragmatic Ethics, influenced by thinkers like John Dewey, suggests that moral principles evolve over time based on experience and societal progress. Unlike rigid ethical theories, it argues that morality is not fixed but should adapt to new challenges and discoveries.

This approach acknowledges that what was once considered ethical might change with time. For example, attitudes toward human rights, gender equality, and environmental issues have evolved significantly. Pragmatic ethics encourages an open-minded, flexible approach to moral decision-making.

Real-World Example

Consider how society’s view on mental health has changed. Decades ago, mental health issues were often dismissed or misunderstood. Today, there is widespread recognition of the importance of mental well-being, leading to better policies and support systems.

14. Hedonism

Hedonism, an ancient ethical theory dating back to Epicurus, argues that pleasure and happiness are the highest moral goods. It suggests that the ultimate goal of life is to seek pleasure and avoid pain. While some forms of hedonism focus on immediate gratification, others emphasize long-term well-being and fulfillment.

This theory is often criticized for being overly self-indulgent, but it can also promote self-care and personal happiness. Ethical hedonism acknowledges that true happiness often involves balance—seeking pleasure in ways that do not harm others or cause future suffering.

Real-World Example

A person might choose a career based on what brings them the most personal satisfaction rather than external expectations. If someone loves painting but is pressured to become a lawyer, they might follow hedonistic reasoning and choose art because it brings them the most joy.

15. Stoic Ethics

Stoic Ethics, rooted in the teachings of philosophers like Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius, focuses on self-control, rationality, and accepting things beyond one’s control. It argues that true happiness comes from virtue and wisdom rather than external circumstances.

Stoicism teaches that emotions like anger, fear, and desire can cloud moral judgment. Instead, individuals should cultivate inner peace by aligning their actions with reason and virtue. This theory is particularly useful in dealing with stress, adversity, and personal challenges.

Real-World Example

A person facing job loss might respond with frustration and despair. A Stoic, however, would focus on what they can control—improving their skills, seeking new opportunities, and maintaining a resilient mindset.

16. Existentialist Ethics

Existentialist Ethics, associated with philosophers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir, argues that individuals create their own moral values through personal choices and responsibility. It rejects the idea that morality is dictated by external forces such as religion, society, or tradition.

This theory emphasizes authenticity – living in accordance with one’s own beliefs and values rather than conforming to societal expectations. However, it also stresses the burden of responsibility, as each person must fully own their actions and their consequences.

Real-World Example

A young adult raised in a strict religious household might question their beliefs and choose their own moral path, even if it goes against their upbringing. They accept full responsibility for their choices rather than relying on external authority.

17. Buddhist Ethics

Buddhist Ethics is rooted in principles like compassion, mindfulness, and the avoidance of harm. Unlike Western ethical theories that focus on rigid rules or consequences, Buddhist ethics emphasizes personal development and inner harmony.

A key concept is the idea of karma—the belief that actions have consequences, not just in this life but in future ones. Practicing kindness, honesty, and mindfulness leads to a more ethical life, not because of imposed laws but because of the natural effects of one’s actions.

Real-World Example

A business owner who follows Buddhist ethics may prioritize fair trade and environmentally friendly practices, believing that ethical business conduct will lead to long-term benefits for both society and themselves.

18. Nihilism (Moral Nihilism)

Moral Nihilism is the radical belief that morality does not objectively exist. It argues that ethical values are human inventions rather than universal truths. Nihilists believe that concepts of right and wrong are mere social constructs with no inherent meaning.

While this theory might sound pessimistic, some argue that it can lead to personal freedom. Without fixed moral rules, individuals are responsible for creating their own ethical frameworks. However, critics worry that nihilism can justify harmful behavior if there are no moral standards to guide actions.

Real-World Example

A person who embraces moral nihilism might argue that laws against certain behaviors, such as drug use, are arbitrary societal constructs rather than absolute moral truths.

19. Intuitionism

Intuitionism, proposed by philosophers like G.E. Moore, suggests that humans have an innate moral sense that helps them distinguish right from wrong. Instead of relying on complex reasoning or strict rules, intuitionists believe moral truths are self-evident and can be understood through instinct and experience.

While this theory acknowledges the role of logic in ethical decision-making, it suggests that some moral truths—such as kindness being good and cruelty being bad—are obvious without the need for deep philosophical debate.

Real-World Example

Many people instinctively feel that helping someone in distress is the right thing to do, even without analyzing the consequences or following a specific ethical rule.

Why Ethical Theories are Important?

Ethical theories are important for several reasons:

Moral Guidance – Ethical theories provide a framework for individuals and societies to determine what is morally right and wrong. They offer guidance on how to make ethical decisions in various situations, helping people navigate complex moral dilemmas.

Consistency – Ethical theories promote consistency in moral decision-making. They enable individuals to apply consistent principles and values across different situations, which is essential for building trust and ethical integrity.

Conflict Resolution – In cases of moral conflicts, ethical theories provide a structured way to evaluate competing values and interests, facilitating the resolution of disputes and disagreements.

Accountability – Ethical theories hold individuals and organizations accountable for their actions. They provide a basis for evaluating behavior and making judgments about whether it aligns with accepted moral principles.

Legal and Social Frameworks – Many legal and social systems are built upon ethical principles. Ethical theories underpin laws, regulations, and social norms, shaping the legal and moral landscape of societies.

Moral Progress – Ethical theories allow for the examination and improvement of moral standards over time. They enable us to question and challenge existing norms, leading to moral progress and social change.

Critical Thinking – Studying ethical theories encourages critical thinking and ethical reflection. It helps individuals develop the skills to analyze and evaluate moral issues, consider multiple perspectives, and make well-informed decisions.

Professional Ethics – In various fields, such as medicine, business, law, and journalism, ethical theories guide professionals in maintaining ethical standards and integrity within their respective disciplines.

Global Ethics – In an increasingly interconnected world, ethical theories provide a basis for discussing and addressing global ethical challenges, such as climate change, human rights, and international conflicts.

Personal Development – Ethical theories can promote personal growth and character development. Virtue ethics, for example, emphasizes the cultivation of moral virtues, encouraging individuals to become better people.

Cross-Cultural Understanding – Ethical theories offer a platform for understanding and respecting diverse cultural and moral perspectives. They facilitate dialogue and cooperation in a multicultural world.

Read Also: 30 Benefits of Studying Philosophy

The Most Popular on BitGlint

Get Inspired with BitGlint

Top 30 Self-Care Morning Rituals

Top 20 Disadvantages of Credit Cards

30 Best Examples How Can Nature Inspire Us

Top 30 Authoritarianism Examples: Definition & Guide

Guide to Growing Organic Vegetables at Home - 10 Tips